Holothuria atra
Source:IUCNTaxonomy
Assessment Information
- IUCN Red List Category and Criteria
- Least Concern ver 3.1
- Assessment language
- English
- Year published
- 2013
- Date assessed
- 2010-05-18 00:00:00 UTC
This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, and considered to be abundant in many parts of its range. It is not widely fished, and there are no other known threats. It is listed as Least Concern.
Geographic Range
This species is also distributed in Celebes, Amboina (Selenka 1867), Florida, East Indies, Pacific Islands (Pearson 1910), Southeast Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldive area, Ceylon, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, north Australia, Philippine, China, south Japan, South Pacific Is., Hawaiian Is. (Clark and Rowe 1971), Australia (Rowe and Gates 1995), and India (Sastry 1996).
Population
This species is probably the most abundant Holothuria spp and the most frequently encountered sea cucumber in the Indian and tropical Pacific.
In the Marshall Islands, only this species has densities suitable for a potential fishery, and in Kiribati it is fairly common. In Tokelau, this species was found in high densities (8000-12000ind*ha-1). In Niue in the late-1980s, 95 percent of all observed sea cucumbers were this low-valued species. At Rarotonga, this species averaged 9942ind*ha-1. It was also abundant at Gaua Island (Kinch et al. 2008).
In the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, this species was the most abundant species (Choo 2008). In the Phu Quoc Archipelago in Vietnam, harvests before 1997 were of many tones per year, declining to less than one per year after 1997 (Choo 2008).
This species is the most abundant and frequent sea cucumber in the Africa and Indian Ocean region (i.e. Réunion, Egypt) (Conand 2008). In Seychelles, the density of this species is of 5.61ind*ha-1. This is the only species of sea cucumber that is not overexploited in Egypt (Lawrence and Sonnenholzner 2004), whilst it is one of the two most important species in La Réunion where larger specimens and low densities were found on the outer reef flats whilst smaller individuals were found in the back reef and inner reef flat stations. The latter were also characterized by high fission rates, which could partly explain the high densities and relative stability over the years (Conand and Frouin 2004).
This species ranges from rare to common in the waters of La Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean (Conand and Mangion 2002).
Eriksson (2006) used species specific transect data to estimate an average population density of 2036 individuals of this species per hectare in Samoan lagoons. The species was present in 191 of 297 transects.
Population density for this species was estimated at 55 individuals per hectare in the Solomon Islands in 1992 (http://www.spc.org.nc/coastfish/reports/ifrp/solomon/SURVEY.xls).
Actinopyga echinites, Actinopyga mauritiana, and this species have been observed in aggregations of several 1000s per hectare (Conand 1994; Hamel et al. 2001).
In 1961, 364 of 407 individuals of this species collected in the Marshall Islands were between 4 and 7 inches long (Bonham and Held 1963).
Bonham and Held (1963) estimated the total number of individuals of this species at Rongelap Atoll, Marshall Islands to be about 5 million around peripheries of the larger islets and some reef and lagoon areas.
In the Gulf of Manner and Pal Bay, CPUE and size of specimens has dramatically declined (Bruckner et al. 2003).
In Mozambique, high fluctuation in exports of H. scabra, H. nobilis, H. fuscogilva, H. atra, A. echinites and A. mauritiana may be due to irregular reporting or to overexploitation. Catch was reported at 500t in 1990, 700t in 1993, 6t in 1995, and 54t in 1996. In Inhambane Province, holothurian fisheries are closed until stocks rebuild (Bruckner et al. 2003).
In the Philippines, annual exports increased from 250t in 1977 and 1189t in 1984 to 2123t in 1996 for 25 species including H. scabra, H. nobilis, B. marmorata, H. fuscogilva, H. atra and A. lecanora (Bruckner et al. 2003).
In Thailand, populations of this species have decreased in fishing areas (Bruckner et al. 2003).
Kalaeb et al. (2008) used transect data to calculate a population density of 295 individuals of this species per hectare in near shore waters of Eritrea, east Africa.
During surveys, Purcell et al. (2009) found that this species was the most abundant species of the study. At 15 sites, abundances of this species exceeded 10,000ind*km-2, or 100 ind*ha-1, pooled across all habitats.
Habitat and Ecology
This species is found in a variety of habitats over a large range (Skewes 2004). It is common in back reef hollows (Conand and Mangion 2002).
It is often found in the intertidal area of the seaward sides of the islets at the edge of the reef-flat nearest shore (Marshall Islands). It can occupy pools of water from a few centimeters to about one half meter deep at low tide, and is occasionally entirely exposed. It usually covers itself with a coating of light coral sand held in place by tube feet, although occasionally it is naked and black (Bonham and Held 1963).
This species shows asexual reproduction by transverse fission, which appears to be the major source of recruitment at Ananij, Marshall Islands rather than from the plankton (Ebert 1978).
In Australia, this species seems to spawn biannually (in summer and winter), and females produce a large number of small ova. Asexual reproduction is frequent (Harriott 1985).
Inshore shallow-water populations composed of smaller individuals, and reproduce mostly by transversal fission, while in deeper or outer reef populations the individuals are larger, and reproduce sexually.
Purcell et al. (2009) noted that the morphotype of this species often varied among habitats: the normal form being found on the reef flat and shallow lagoons, the large form being found in deeper water of passes, reef fronts and deeper parts of lagoons, and a textured form occurring on the crest.
In the Western Central Pacific Region, this species inhabits the inner and outer reef flats and back reefs or shallow coastal lagoons between 0 and 20m (Kinch et al. 2008). In the Africa and Indian Ocean region, it prefers the back reef and the reef flats over sand and rubble between 0 and 10m (Conand 2008). In the Galápagos Islands, this species inhabits shallow waters, generally exposed on lava or coral rubble (Toral-Granda 2008). In Egypt, this species prefers to live in sand, sea grass meadows and coral areas between 0 and 20m (Lawrence et al. 2004). In China, it prefers areas with an abundance of sand and sea weed up to 15m (Li 2004). In Northwestern Australia, smaller individuals of this species are found on sandy areas and coral rubble adjacent to the shoreline within the reef-lagoon (Shiell 2004). In the Comores, this species lives in shallow waters exposed over sandy bottoms or coral rubble (Samyn et al. 2006).
This species has an annual reproductive event, between September and December in Fiji, whilst in the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) it has reproductive events in January, May-June, and November-December. It can reproduce asexually by fission in natural conditions (Kinch et al. 2008), which seems to occur seasonally (Gabr et al. 2004). Fission seems to have affected gene flow in the Great Barrier Reef, Torres Strait and Réunion (Kinch et al. 2008). In Malaysia, it lives over dead corals on the shoreward side of the reef or in soft, sandy bottoms (Choo 2008). In the Toliara Great Barrier Reef of Madagascar, H. atra can be found in the inner slope, the seagrass meadows, the microatoll, the detrital fringe and the outer flat, with higher biomass in the inner slope (Conand 2008). In La Reunión, spawning occurred in the warm season while fission occurs in the cool season (Conand and Frouin 2007).
This species is known to host the pearl fishes Encheliophis gracilis and Encheliophis vermicularis (Eeckhaut et al. 2004).
This species has high concentrations of atratoxin (A, B1 and B), antimicrobial agents which showed high activity against various yeasts and fungi. Moreover, the ethanol extracts from it have antifungal properties effective against the yeasts, Saccharomyces lypolytica and Candida lypolytica (Choo 2004, Bruckner 2006).
No information is known on changes of habitat requirements during the life history of this species, but generally the juveniles of aspidochirotids are cryptic and small individuals that may migrate into adult habitat later (Purcell 2004).| Habitats | Suitability | Major importance |
|---|---|---|
Threats
In many countries of the Western Central Pacific region, this species is consumed as beche-de-mer or their instestines and/or gonads, as delicacies or as the protein component in traditional diets. Beche-de-mer consumption is of greater importance in times of hardship. It is among the top three species for local subsistence consumption (Kinch et al. 2008). This species is harvested in 23 countries and islands states in the Western Central Pacific: Palau, Guam, CNMI, FSM, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna, Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Coral Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Northern Territory and Western Australia (in Australia); is part of a subsistence fishery in Guam, Nauru, Samoa, Cook Islands, Nuie and French Polynesia (Kinch et al. 2008).
In the Cook Islands, the fishery restarted again in mid 1980s focusing on this species among other species. In the Solomon Islands, this species made 22% of the exports in 2000, and it increased to 60% in 2003. In Fiji, it is part of the second group of most commercial species (Kinch et al. 2008).
This species is of commercial importance in China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. In Thailand, there is an export fishery focusing on this species and in Indonesia it is one of the heavily exploited species. In the Philippines, it is considered the most valuable species. However, this might be due to a misidentification due to the low value of this species (Choo 2008). It is of low commercial importance in China (Chen 2004), but it is a high yielding species there (Li, 2004).
It is of commercial importance in Tanzania, Mauritius, Sri Lanka (Conand 2008), Egypt (Lawrence et al. 2004), Mozambique (Bruckner 2005) and Eritrea where it is the most important species. It is also of commercial importance in India although there is a ban since 2001, and in Madagascar it has limited harvesting (Rasolofonirina 2007). In Seychelles, this species is collected in small numbers (Aumeeruddy and Conand 2008).
This species is used in the aquarium trade (Toral-Granda 2007).
In the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), there is an illegal fishery for this species with no biological or ecological data for management (Toral-Granda 2008).
Although not one of the most important species (low value) for fishery purposes, it can be expected that this species may become more popular after the depletion or reduction of other species of higher commercial importance and value. As seen in Kiribati, after the decline of H. fuscogilva and T. ananas, in PNG after the decline of H. scabra, in Fiji after the decline of A. miliaris (Kinch et al. 2008), and in Thailand after the overexploitation of H. scabra (Choo 2008).
Many sea cucumbers are broadcast spawners, which can limit the fertilization success of a species in exploited populations.
| title | scope | timing | score | severity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Use trade
In many countries of the Western Central Pacific region, this species is consumed as beche-de-mer or their instestines and/or gonads, as delicacies or as the protein component in traditional diets. Beche-de-mer consumption is of greater importance in times of hardship. It is among the top three species for local subsistence consumption (Kinch et al. 2008). This species is harvested in 23 countries and islands states in the Western Central Pacific: Palau, Guam, CNMI, FSM, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna, Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Coral Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Northern Territory and Western Australia (in Australia); is part of a subsistence fishery in Guam, Nauru, Samoa, Cook Islands, Nuie and French Polynesia (Kinch et al. 2008).
In the Cook Islands, the fishery restarted again in mid 1980s focusing on this species among other species. In the Solomon Islands, this species made 22% of the exports in 2000, and it increased to 60% in 2003. In Fiji, it is part of the second group of most commercial species (Kinch et al. 2008).
This species is of commercial importance in China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. In Thailand, there is an export fishery focusing on this species and in Indonesia it is one of the heavily exploited species. In the Philippines, it is considered the most valuable species. However, this might be due to a misidentification due to the low value of this species (Choo 2008). It is of low commercial importance in China (Chen 2004), but it is a high yielding species there (Li, 2004).
It is of commercial importance in Tanzania, Mauritius, Sri Lanka (Conand 2008), Egypt (Lawrence et al. 2004), Mozambique (Bruckner 2005) and Eritrea where it is the most important species. It is also of commercial importance in India although there is a ban since 2001, and in Madagascar it has limited harvesting (Rasolofonirina 2007). In Seychelles, this species is collected in small numbers (Aumeeruddy and Conand 2008).
This species is used in the aquarium trade (Toral-Granda 2007).
Text summary
Sea cucumber collection has been banned in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bruckner et al. 2003). In Inhambane Province (Mozambique), holothurian fisheries are closed until stocks rebuild (Bruckner et al. 2003).
With the inclusion of I. fuscus in CITES Appendix III, a debate started whether the conservation of this group may be addressed with their inclusion in one of CITES appendices. The debate started in Conference of the Parties (CoP) 12 (Santiago, Chile) and extended to CoP 14 (The Hague, Netherlands). No recent advances have been achieved on this matter. For a revision of the possible pros and cons of a CITES listing, please see Toral-Granda (2007).
This species may be present in some marine protected areas within its range.